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User:Bleh fu/temp
This statement "Forms of chamber music are defined by instrumentation (string quartet, piano quintet and so on). The structure of a chamber work is typically similar to a sonata" is confusing in that its language does not clearly differentiate as referring to the form of music or a form of chamber music, i.e., a form of instrumentation, or way of organizing instruments within an ensemble. The statement that "chamber music is typically similar to a sonata", again, is misleading; it is describing classical and romantic chamber music, by and large. Romantic music is European classical music written in the norms and styles of the period defined from the early 1800's to the first decade of the 20th century. While originally used to describe similar trends in literature, arts and philosophy, the conventional time frame used in musicology to define Romanticism are now very different from these counterparts which define the "Romantic period" as running from the 1780's to the 1840's. Romanticism as a movement argued that not all truth could be deduced from axioms, that there were inescapable realities in the world which could only be reached through emotion, feeling and intuition. In the Romantic Period in music, the struggle to increase emotional expression and power to describe these deeper truths, while preserving, or even extending, the formal structures from the classical period becomes a fundamental point of contention between different schools of music. The vernacular use of the term romantic music applies to music which is thought to evoke a certain dreamy or soft atmosphere. This vernacular use is often rooted in norms of "romantic" that were created during the period, but it neither describes all "Romantic music" produced, nor is all music that would be commonly called "romantic" derived from the period.
Musical languageThe Romantic era created the concept of tonality to describe the harmonic vocabulary which they inherited from the baroque and classical periods. And sought to fuse the chromatic innovations with the large structural harmonic planning of Franz Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven. This was, in particular, to satisfy the desire for a greater fluidity of movement, greater contrast and, in the end, longer works. Chromaticism grew more frequent and varied in use, as did dissonance. Composers modulated to increasingly remote keys. Modulations were not always as extensively prepared as they were in the classical era, and sometimes instead of a pivot chord, a pivot note was used. Franz Liszt and others sometimes enharmonically "spelled" this note in a different way (for example, changing a C sharp into a D flat) to modulate into even more distant keys. The properties of the diminished seventh chord, which enables modulation to almost any key, were also extensively exploited. Composers such as Ludwig van Beethoven, often regarded as the first Romantic composer, and later Richard Wagner expanded their harmonic language to include chords previously unused, or to treat existing chords in different ways. Wagner's Tristan chord, found in Tristan and Isolde, has had much written about it attempting to explain exactly what harmonic function it serves. Romantic music analogized music to poetry and to rhapsodic and narrative structures, and at the same time created a more systematic basis for teaching the composing and performing of concert music. The Romantic era codified previous practice, for example inventing the idea of the sonata form, and then almost immediately began to extend that form. There was an increasing focus on melodies and themes, as well as an explosion in composing songs. This emphasis on melody found expression in the more and more extensive use of cyclic form, which turned out to be an important structural device to unify the much longer pieces which were composed in the Romantic era. These trends — towards greater harmonic elusiveness and fluidity, longer and more powerfully placed melodies, poesis as the basis of expression, mixing of literature and music — were all present to one degree or another previously; however, the Romantic Era made their pursuit central to the idea of music itself. Technology also played a significant role in the changes in musical language — from the increasing range and power of the piano, to the introduction of valves and keys for instruments, the very sound and reach of the symphony orchestra changed, and with it the kinds of works which were possible. Influence from non-musical sourcesOne of the controversies that raged through the Romantic era in music was the relationship of music to some external text or source. While music with a point or a program—program music—was common to the 19th century, the 19th century began to see the polarization between formal perfection and external inspiration as a crucial aesthetic issue. The controversy grew with increasing tension beginning in the 1830's with Hector Berlioz' symphony which had an extensive program text associated with it. The Symphony Fantastique, caused critics and professors to pick up their pens. Most prominent among the detractors was François-Joseph Fétis, a Belgian who was the head of the newly founded Brussels Conservatory, who declared that the work was "not music". Robert Schumann defended the work, but not the program itself, saying that good music would not be hurt by bad titles, but good titles would not save a bad work. It was left to Franz Liszt to defend the idea of extra-musical inspiration. This rift grew more pronounced, with polemics on both sides. To the believers in "absolute" music, formal perfection rested on the ability to express in music while obey the schematics of previous works, most notably the Sonata Form which were only then being codified. To the adherents of program music, the rhapsodic expression of poetry or other external text was, itself, a form. They argued that to bring the artist's life into his work, the form had to follow the narrative. Both sides pointed back to Beethoven as their inspiration and justification. This rift would become codified by the conflict between followers of Johannes Brahms and Richard Wagner: Brahms was taken to be the pinnacle of absolute music, without a text or other outside reference, and Wagner the believer in the poetic "stuff" shaping the harmonic and melodic flow of the music. The forces that brought this controversy about are complex. The rise in importance of Romantic Poetry is certainly one of them, as was the increasing market for songs which could be sung in concert, or played in the home. Another is the changing nature of concerts themselves, as concerts moved from having a wide variety of works, to being more specialized, there was increasing pressure to have instrumental works have a greater expressiveness and specificity. Examples of extra-musical inspiration include Liszt's Faust and Dante symphonies and his symphonic poems, the Manfred Symphony by Tchaikovsky, Mahler's First Symphony based on the novel Titan and Saens Sans suite Animals Suite, from which the very popular "The Swan" is drawn. Composers such as Schubert would use song melodies in their extended works, and other composers such as Liszt, would transcribe opera arias and songs into purely instrumental works. Romantic operaIn opera, there was a tendency for the forms usual in classical and baroque opera to be loosened, broken, and merged into each other. This reached its climax in Wagner, where arias, choruses, recitatives and ensemble pieces cannot easily be distinguished from each other. Instead there is a continuous flow of music. Other changes occurred as well. The decline of castrati led to tenors being given the heroic lead in operas as a rule, and the chorus took on a more important role. Towards the end of the Romantic period, verismo opera, depicting realistic, rather than historical or mythological, subjects became popular in Italy. France followed with operas such as Bizet's Carmen. NationalismA number of romantic composers wrote nationalist music, music which had a particular connection to a particular country. This manifested itself in a number of ways. The subjects of Mikhail Glinka's operas, for example, are specifically Russian, while Bedřich Smetana and Antonin Dvorak both used rhythms and themes from Czech folk dances and songs. Late in the 19th century, Jean Sibelius wrote music based on the Finnish epic, the Kalevala. Instrumentation and scaleAs in other periods, instrumental technique was developed in the romantic era. This was a trend that was begun by Ludwig van Beethoven's Third Symphony, the Eroica, and continued through the period. Composers such as Hector Berlioz orchestrated their works in a way hitherto unheard, given a new prominence to wind instruments. Instruments previously rare, such as the piccolo and cor anglais, came to be parts of the standard symphony orchestra, and the orchestra as a whole grew. Gustav Mahler's Symphony No. 8 is known as the Symphony of a Thousand because of the large number of people required to perform it. In addition to using larger orchestral forces, works in the Romantic era tended to become longer. A typical symphony by Haydn or Mozart will last twenty to twenty-five minutes; Beethoven's Eroica, once again, will last at least forty-five minutes, a significant increase; some of Beethoven's later symphonies are even longer. The trend towards long, large scale works which require substantial orchestral forces probably again reached its peak in the later symphonies of Mahler. The instrumental virtuoso also became more prominent. The violinist Niccolo Paganini was one of the musical stars of the early 19th century, his fame usually put down as much to his charisma as his technique. Franz Liszt was also a very popular virtuoso pianist. Typically in the 19th century, virtuosi such as these were more likely to attract an audience than was the presence on the program of the music of some particular composer. Romanticism in music, in the end, represented a trend that made larger and larger demands on the orchestras playing it, on individual performers, and on the listeners. These trends tended to more sharply distinguish what we have come to call "classical music" from "popular music." Brief Chronology of Musical RomanticismClassical roots of Romanticism (1780-1815)In literature the "Romantic" period is often said to begin in the 1770's or 1780's with a movement known as "storm and struggle", in Germany. It was also attended by a greater influence of Shakespeare, and of folk sagas, whether real or created, as well as the poetry of Homer. Writers such as Goethe and Schiller radically altered practice, while in Scotland Robert Burns began setting down folk music. This literary movement is reflected in the music of the "classical" era composers in a variety of ways, including Mozart's work in German opera, choice of songs and melodies to set for commercial works, and a gradually increasing violence in artistic expression. However, as long as composer worked in and for court and royal patronage, their ability to engage in "romanticism and revolt" was carefully limited. Mozart's troubles in staging The Marriage of Figaro are a case in point; the play had been banned as revolutionary. But even in purely musical terms, romanticism drew its fundamental substance from the structure of classical practice. The classical era increased playing standards, created standardized forms and bodies of musicians, and set the expectations. It was not without reason that E.T.A. Hoffmann called Mozart, Beethoven and Haydn the "three Romantic composers". One of the most crucial undercurrents in the classical era is the role of chromaticism and harmonic ambiguity. All of the major classical composers used harmonic ambiguity and rapid movement through keys with out "establishing" the key. Among the most famous examples include the "harmonic chaos" at the opening of Haydn's The Creation, and Beethoven's open fifth opening of the D Minor Symphony . However, for all of these excursions - the tension in the music was based on articulated sections, movement towards the dominant or relative major, and a transparency of texture. By 1810 however, the chromaticism, use of the minor key, desire to move through more and more keys and a deeper range to music had been combined with a need for more operatic reach. While Beethoven would later be regarded as the central figure, at the time composers such as Clementi and Spohr represented the taste by incorporating more and more chromatic notes into their thematic material. This tension, between the desire for more "color" and the classical desire for structure would create a crisis of sorts. On response was to move to opera, where text could provide structure even where there were no formal models. ETA Hoffman is known as a critic now, but his Undine of 1814 was a radical innovation in music. Another response was to move to shorter forms, including some novel ones such as the nocturne or night piece, where the intensity of the harmony itself was enough to carry the music forward. Early Romantic (1815-1850)By the second decade of the 19th century, a shift towards new sources for music, along with an increasing chromaticism in melody and the desire for more "expressive" harmony became felt as a stylistic shift. The forces beneath this shift were not only musical, but economic, political and social. The stage was set for a generation of composers who could speak in the new environment of post-Napoleonic Europe. The first composers of this wave are generally regarded to be Ludwig Spohr, ETA Hoffman, Karl Maria von Weber and Franz Schubert. These composers grew up in the wake of the dramatic expansion of concert life which occurred in the late 18th century and early 19th century, and adjusted their expectations and styles accordingly. For many composers of this decade Beethoven was the example to follow, or at least aspire to. However, as important was the chromatic melody of Muzio Clementi, and the stirring operatic works of Rossini, Cherubini and Mehul . The setting of folk poetry, and of songs for voice and piano generally became an important source of income for composers to serve a growing market of middle class homes which had pianos, and where private music making was considered an essential part of domestic life. The crucial works of this wave of Romantics were the song cycles and symphonies of Franz Schubert, and the operas of Weber, particularly Oberon, Die Freischütz and Euryanthe . Schubert's work was largely unknown, played only before limited audiences, and would only gradually have a wider impact. The compositions of John Field by contrast would be well known quickly in his lifetime: partially because he had a gift for creating small "characteristic" piano forms and dances. The next cohort of Romantic composers is generally regarded to start with the young Franz Liszt, Felix Mendelssohn, Frédéric Chopin and Hector Berlioz. All born in the 19th century, and producing works early in their careers of lasting value. Mendelssohn in particular was a prodigy, writing two string quartets, a string octet and orchestral music before even leaving his teens. Chopin would focus on compositions for the piano, including his etudes and two piano concerti. Berlioz would produce the first important "post-Beethoven" symphony with his programatic Sinfonie Fantastique. At the same time what is now labelled "Romantic Opera" became established with a strong connection between Paris and northern Italy - the combination of French orchestral virtuosity, Italianate vocal lines and dramatic flare, along with texts drawn from increasingly popular literature would establish a particular norm of emotional expression which continues to dominate the operatic stage. The work of Bellini and Donizetti was immensely popular at this time. An important aspect of this phase of Romanticism was the wide spread popularity of piano concerts, or as Franz Liszt named them "recitals", which included improvisation on popular themes, short works, and the performance of longer works, particularly sonatas by Beethoven and Mozart. One of the most prominent exponents of Beethoven was Clara Wieck who would later marry Robert Schumann. The increase in travel, particularly facilitated by rail, and later steamship, created international audiences for piano virtuosi such as Liszt, Chopin and Thalberg - concerts became events in themselves, to some extent an innovation pioneered by Niccolo Paganini the famous violin virtuoso. With the late 1830's and 1840's the full flowering of this generation in music was presented to the public, including the music of Robert Schumann, Giacomo Meyerbeer and the young Guiseppi Verdi. But it was hardly the only style - a post-classical style exemplified by the Paris Conservatoire, and court music making still dominated concert programs, "Romanticism", at least as practiced by Mendelssohn, Berlioz, Schumann and others was, as yet, not the dominant mode of music making. This was to no small extent changed by the rise of institutions, such as symphony orchestras with regular seasons, to no small extent promoted by Felix Mendelssohn himself. Music was a quasi-religious experience, and the "Philharmonic" society became part of a concert as a time for deep engagement in the music, in contrast to the less formal manners of previous concert life. It was at this point that Richard Wagner produced his first successful operas, and began arguing for a radically expanded conception of "musical drama". A self-described communist, in constant trouble with both creditors and authorities, he began gathering around him a body of like minded musicians, including Franz Liszt, who would dedicate themselves to making the "Music of the Future". Literary Romanticism is generally regarded to have ended in 1848, with the revolutions of that year marking a turning point in the mood of Europe, or at least the perception of where the cutting edge of music and art was. With the rise of a self described "realist" ideology, as well as the deaths of such figures as Paganini, Mendelssohn and Schumann, along with the retirement from concertizing of Franz Liszt, a new wave of music making had arrived. Some would argue that, like poetry and painting, this new wave should be identified as Victorian rather than Romantic, but this is at present a minority position. Instead, the late 19th century is described as being the "High Romantic". Late Romantic Era (1850-1910)As the 19th century moved into its second half, many of the social, political and economic changes set in motion in the post-Napoleonic period became entrenched. Telegraph and railway created a larger and faster binding of the European world together. The nationalism that was an important strain of the early 19th century Romanticism became formalized by political and linguistic means. Literature for the middle class audience became the fixture of publishing, including the rise of the novel as the primary literary form. Many of the figures of the first half of the 19th century had retired, died, or reached the end of their careers. Many others struck out in new directions, taking advantage of the greater regularity of concert life, and the greater financial and technical resources that were available. In the previous 50 years numerous innovations in instrumentation, including the double escarpment piano action, the valved wind instrument, and the chin rest for violins and violas, had gone from novelty to standard. The dramatic increase in musical education meant a wider public for piano music and sophisticated concert music. The establishment of conservatories and universities created centers were musicians could make stable careers teaching others to play, rather than being entrepreneurs on their own resources. The sum of these changes can be seen in the titanic wave of symphonies, concerti and "tone poems" which were created, and the expansion of the opera seasons in Paris, London and Italy. The late Romantic period saw the rise of national "styles" which were associated with the folk music and poetry of particular countries, and with the important composers from that country. The notion that there were "German" and "Italian" styles had long been established in writing on music, but the late 19th century saw the rise of a "Russian" style: Glinka, Mussorgski, Rimsky-Korsakov, Tchaikovski and Borodin; and also Czech, Finnish and French "styles" of composition. Many composers were expressly nationalistic in their objectives, seeking to write opera or music associated with their native lands language and culture. Romanticism in the 20th century (1900- )Many composers born in the 19th century continued to compose well into the 20th century in styles which were recognizably connected to the previous musical era, including Sergei Rachmaninoff, Richard Strauss and Kurt Atterberg. In addition many composers who would later be musical modernists composed works in Romantic styles early in their career, Igor Stravinsky with his Firebird ballet, Arnold Schoenberg's Gurrelieder , Béla Bartók's Bluebeard's Castle stand as well known examples. But the vocabulary and structure of the late 19th century was not merely held over, Jean Sibelius, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Erich Korngold, Berthold Goldschmidt and from time to time Sergei Prokofiev composed works in recognizably Romantic styles until after 1950. While new tendencies such as neo-classicism and atonal music challenged the preeminence of the romantic style, the desire to compose in tonally centered chromatic vocabularies remained present in major works. Samuel Barber, Benjamin Britten, Gustav Holst, Dmitri Shostakovich, Malcolm Arnold and Arnold Bax while considering themselves modern and contemporary composers, drew frequently from musical Romanticism in their works. Musical romanticism reached a rhetorical and artistic nadir around 1960: it seemed as if the future was all with avant garde styles of composition, or with neo-classicism of some kind. While Hindemith moved back to a style more recognizably rooted in romanticism, most composers moved in the other direction. Only in the conservative academic hierarchy of the USSR and China did it seem that musical romanticism had a place. However, by the late 1960s a revival of music using the surface of musical romanticism began: composers such as George Rochberg switched from serialism to models drawn from Gustav Mahler, a project which found him the company of Nicholas Maw and David Del Tredici. This movement is described as "Neo-Romanticism", and is considered to include works such as John Corigliano's First Symphony. Another area where the style of Mahler and Strauss survived, and even flourished, was in film scoring. Many of the early émigres escaping from Nazi Germany were Jewish composers who had studied, or even studied under, Gustav Mahler's disciples in Vienna. Max Steiner's lush score for Gone With The Wind provides an example of the use of Wagnerian leitmotifs and Mahlerian orchestration. The "Golden Age of Hollywood" film music rested heavily on the work of composers such as Korngold and Steiner as well as Franz Waxman and Alfred Newman. The next generation of film composers, Alexander North , John Williams and Elmer Bernstein drew on this tradition to write some of the most familiar orchestral music of the late 20th century. Composers of the romantic era
See also
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